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附錄
附錄1
翻譯部分
Raw CCD images are exceptional but not perfect. Due to the digital nature of the data many of the imperfections can be compensated for or calibrated out of the final image through digital image processing.
Composition of a Raw CCD Image.
A raw CCD image consists of the following signal components:
IMAGE SIGNAL - The signal from the source.Electrons are generated from the actual source photons.
BIAS SIGNAL - Initial signal already on the CCD before the exposure is taken. This signal is due to biasing the CCD offset slightly above zero A/D counts (ADU).
THERMAL SIGNAL - Signal (Dark Current thermal electrons) due to the thermal activity of the semiconductor. Thermal signal is reduced by cooling of the CCD to low temperature.
Sources of Noise
CCD images are susceptible to the following sources of noise:
PHOTON NOISE - Random fluctuations in the photon signal of the source. The rate at which photons are received is not constant.
THERMAL NOISE - Statistical fluctuations in the generation of Thermal signal. The rate at which electrons are produced in the semiconductor substrate due to thermal effects is not constant.
READOUT NOISE - Errors in reading the signal; generally dominated by the on-chip amplifier.
QUANTIZATION NOISE - Errors introduced in the A/D conversion process.
SENSITIVITY VARIATION - Sensitivity variations from photosite to photosite on the CCD detector or across the detector. Modern CCD's are uniform to better than 1% between neighboring photosites and uniform to better than 10% across the entire surface.
Noise Corrections
REDUCING NOISE - Readout Noise and Quantization Noise are limited by the construction of the CCD camera and can not be improved upon by the user. Thermal Noise, however, can be reduced by cooling of the CCD (temperature regulation). The Sensitivity Variations can be removed by proper flat fielding.
CORRECTING FOR THE BIAS AND THERMAL SIGNALS - The Bias and Thermal signals can be subtracted out from the Raw Image by taking what is called a Dark Exposure. The dark exposure is a measure of the Bias Signal and Thermal Signal and may simply be subtracted from the Raw Image.
FLAT FIELDING -A record of the photosite to photosite sensitivity variations can be obtained by taking an exposure of a uniformly lit 'flat field". These variations can then be divided out of the Raw Image to produce an image essentially free from this source of error. Any length exposure will do, but ideally one which saturates the pixels to the 50% or 75% level is best.
The Final Processed Image
The final Processed Image which removes unwanted signals and reduces noise as best we can is computed as follows:
Final Processed Image = (Raw - Dark)/Flat
All of the digital image processing functions described above can be accomplished by using CCDOPS software furnished with each SBIG imaging camera. The steps to accomplish them are described in the Operating Manual furnished with each SBIG imaging camera. At SBIG we offer our technical support to help you with questions on how to improve your images.
HOW TO SELECT THE CORRECT CCD IMAGING CAMERA FOR YOUR TELESCOPE
When new customers contact SBIG we discuss their imaging camera application. We try to get an idea of their interests. We have found this method is an effective way of insuring that our customers get the right imaging camera for their purposes. Some of the questions we ask are as follows:
What type of telescope do you presently own? Having this information allows us to match the CCD imaging Camera's parameters, pixel size and field of view to your telescope. We can also help you interface the CCD imaging camera's automatic guiding functions to your telescope.
Are you a MAC or PC user? Since our software supports both of these platforms we can insure that you receive the correct software. We can also answer questions about any unique functions in one or the other. We can send you a demonstration copy of the appropriate software for your review.
Do you have a telescope drive base with an autoguider port? Do you want to operate from a remote computer? Companies like Software Bisque fully support our products with telescope control and imaging camera software.
Do you want to take photographic quality images of deep space objects, image planets, or perform wide field searches for near earth asteroids or supernovas? In learning about your interests we can better guide you to the optimum CCD pixel size and imaging area for the application.
Do you want to make photometric measurements of variable stars or determine precise asteroid positions? From this information we can recommend a CCD imaging camera model and explain how to use the specific analysis functions to perform these tasks. We can help you characterize your imaging camera by furnishing additional technical data.
Do you want to automatically guide long uninterrupted astrophotographs? As the company with the most experience in CCD autoguiding we can help you install and operate a CCD autoguider on your telescope. The Model STV has a worldwide reputation for accurate guiding on dim guide stars. No matter what type of telescope you own we can help you correctly interface it and get it working properly.
SBIG CCD IMAGING CAMERAS
The SBIG product line consists of a series of thermoelectrically cooled CCD imaging cameras designed for a wide range of applications ranging from astronomy, tricolor imaging, color photometry, spectroscopy, medical imaging, densitometry, to chemiluminescence and epifluorescence imaging, etc. This catalog includes information on astronomical imaging cameras, scientific imaging cameras, autoguiding, and accessories. We have tried to arrange the catalog so that it is easy to compare products by specifications and performance.? The tables in the product section compare some of the basic characteristics on each CCD imaging camera in our product line. You will find a more detailed set of specifications with each individual imaging camera description.
HOW TO GET STARTED USING YOUR CCD IMAGING CAMERA
It all starts with the software.? If there's any company well known for its outstanding imaging camera software it's SBIG.?Our CCDOPS Operating Software is well known for its user oriented camera control features and stability.? CCDOPS is available for free download from our web site along with sample images that you can display and analyze using the image processing and analysis functions of the CCDOPS software. You can become thoroughly familiar with how our imaging cameras work and the capabilities of the software before you purchase an imaging camera.? We also include CCDSoftV5 and TheSky from Software Bisque with most of our cameras at no additional charge.? Macintosh users receive a free copy of EquinoX planetarium and camera control software for the MacOS-X operating system.? No other manufacturer offers better software than you get with SBIG cameras.? New customers receiving their CCD imaging camera should first read the installation section in their CCDOPS Operating Manual. Once you have read that section you should have no difficulty installing CCDOPS software on your hard drive, connecting the USB cable from the imaging camera to your computer, initiating the imaging camera and within minutes start taking your first CCD images.? Many of our customers are amazed at how easy it is to start taking images. ? Additional information can be found by reading the image processing sections of the CCDOPS and CCDSoftV5 Manuals. This information allows you to progress to more advanced features such as automatic dark frame subtraction of images, focusing the imaging camera, viewing, analyzing and processing the images on the monitor, co-adding images, taking automatic sequences of images, photometric and astrometric measurements, etc.
A PERSONAL TOUCH FROM SBIG
At SBIG we have had much success with a program in which we continually review customer's images sent to us on disk or via e-mail.? We can often determine the cause of a problem from actual images sent in by a user. We review the images and contact each customer personally.? Images displaying poor telescope tracking, improper imaging camera focus, oversaturated images, etc., are typical initial problems. ? We will help you quickly learn how to improve your images.? You can be assured of personal technical support when you need it.? The customer support program has furnished SBIG with a large collection of remarkable images.? Many customers have had their images published in SBIG catalogs, ads, and various astronomy magazines.? We welcome the chance to review your images and hope you will take advantage of our trained staff to help you improve your images.
TRACK AND ACCUMULATE? (U.S. Patent # 5,365,269)
Using an innovative engineering approach SBIG developed an imaging camera function called Track & Accumulate (TRACCUM) in which multiple images are automatically registered to create a single long exposure.? Since the long exposure consists of short images the total combined exposure significantly improves resolution by reducing the cumulative telescope periodic error.? In the TRACCUM mode each image is shifted to correct guiding errors and added to the image buffer. In this mode the telescope does not need to be adjusted.? The great sensitivity of the CCD virtually guarantees that there will be a usable guide star within the field of view. This feature provides dramatic improvement in resolution by reducing the effect of periodic error and allowing unattended hour long exposures.? SBIG has been granted U.S. Patent # 5,365,269 for Track & Accumulate.
DUAL CCD SELF-GUIDING? (U.S. Patent # 5,525,793)
In 1994 with the introduction of Models ST-7 and ST-8 CCD Imaging Cameras which incorporate two separate CCD detectors, SBIG was able to accomplish the goal of introducing a truly self-guided CCD imaging camera.? The ability to select guide stars with a separate CCD through the full telescope aperture is equivalent to having a thermoelectrically cooled CCD autoguider in your imaging camera.? This feature has been expanded to all dual sensor ST series cameras (ST-7/8/9/10/2000) and all STL series cameras (STL-1001/1301/4020/6303/11000).? One CCD is used for guiding and the other for collecting the image.? They are mounted in close proximity, both focused at the same plane, allowing the imaging CCD to integrate while the PC uses the guiding CCD to correct the telescope.? Using a separate CCD for guiding allows 100% of the primary CCD's active area to be used to collect the image.? The telescope correction rate and limiting guide star magnitude can be independently selected.? Tests at SBIG indicated that 95% of the time a star bright enough for guiding will be found on a TC237 tracking CCD without moving the telescope, using an f/6.3 telescope.? The self-guiding function quickly established itself as the easiest and most accurate method for guiding CCD images.? Placing both detectors in close proximity at the same focal plane insures the best possible guiding.? Many of the long integrated exposures now being published are taken with this self-guiding method, producing very high resolution images of deep space objects.? SBIG has been granted U.S. Patent # 5,525,793 for the dual CCD Self-Guiding function.
COMPUTER PLATFORMS
SBIG has been unique in its support of both PC and Macintosh platforms for our cameras.? The imaging cameras in this catalog communicate with the host computer through standard serial or USB ports depending on the specific models.? Since there are no external plug-in boards required with our imaging camera systems we encourage users to operate with the new family of high resolution graphics laptop computers.? We furnish Operating Software for you to install on your host computer. Once the software is installed and communication with the imaging camera is set up complete control of all of the imaging camera functions is through the host computer keyboard. The recommended minimum requirements for memory and video graphics are as shown below.
GENERAL CONCLUSION
(1) of this item from the theoretical analysis of the use of CCD technology for real-time non-contact measuring the diameter of the feasibility of measuring it is fast, efficient, accurate, high degree of automation, off-production time and so on.
(2) projects to test the use of CCD technology to achieve real-time, online non-contact measurement, developed by the CCD-line non-contact diameter measurement system has a significant technology advanced and practical application of significance.
(3) from the theoretical and experimental project on the summary of the utilization of CCD technology developed by SCM PV systems improve the measurement accuracy of several ways: improving crystal, a multi-pixel CCD devices and take full advantage of CCD-like device Face width.
譯文
原料CCD圖像是例外，但并非十全十美。由于數(shù)字數(shù)據(jù)的性質(zhì)有很多不完善，可以得到補償或校準出最后的形象，通過數(shù)字圖像處理。 組成原料CCD圖像。 原料CCD圖像組成，以下信號組成部分： 圖像信號-信號從s ource.electrons產(chǎn)生實際的光子源。 偏置信號-初步信號已經(jīng)在防治荒漠化公約前曝光是所采取的。這個信號是由于偏置防治荒漠化公約抵銷略高于零的A / D計數(shù)（ adu ） 。 熱信號-信號（暗電流的熱電子）由于熱活性半導(dǎo)體。熱信號是減少冷卻防治荒漠化公約低溫。來源噪音CCD圖像很容易受到以下來源的噪音： 光子噪聲-隨機波動，在光子的信號源。率在哪個光子收到的是不是常數(shù)。 熱噪聲-統(tǒng)計的波動產(chǎn)生的熱信號。率，其中電子產(chǎn)品在半導(dǎo)體基板由于熱效應(yīng)是不是常數(shù)。 讀出噪聲-在讀的錯誤信號;普遍占主導(dǎo)地位由芯片內(nèi)建的放大器。 量化噪聲-錯誤介紹了在A / D轉(zhuǎn)換過程。
敏感性的變化-敏感性的變化，從p hotosite，以p hotosite對C CD探測器或整個探測器?，F(xiàn)代的CCD是統(tǒng)一，以更好地超過1 ％的鄰國間photosites和統(tǒng)一，以更好地超過10 ％ ，橫跨整個表面。
噪音更正減少噪音-讀出噪聲和量化噪聲是有限的，由建設(shè)的C CD相機，并不能改善后，由用戶。熱噪聲，但是，可以減少冷卻防治荒漠化公約（溫度調(diào)節(jié)） 。敏感性的變化可以刪除適當?shù)钠綀觥?
糾正偏見和熱的信號-偏見和熱信號可以減去從R AW圖像，采取什么是所謂的一個黑暗的暴露。黑暗曝光，是衡量偏差信號和熱信號和可能只是減去RAW圖像。
平場-的紀錄，該photosite ，以photosite敏感性的變化可以得到以一曝光，均勻點燃了'平場“ 。這些變化便可以劃分出RAW圖像，以產(chǎn)生一個形象，基本上是免費的從這個誤差來源。任何長度的接觸將盡，但理想的其中飽和像素到50 ％或75 ％的水平是最好的。
最后處理的圖像最后處理的形象，刪除無用信號，并降低噪音，最好的，我們可以計算如下：
最后處理的圖像= （原料-黑暗） /單位所有的數(shù)字圖像處理功能上文所述，可以通過使用ccdops軟件家具與每個sbig成像相機。步驟來完成他們所描述的操作手冊家具與每個sbig成像相機。在sbig我們提供我們的技術(shù)支持，以幫助您的問題，就如何改善你的圖像。
如何選擇正確的CCD成像相機為您的望遠鏡
當新客戶的聯(lián)系sbig我們討論他們的成像相機應(yīng)用。我們爭取的構(gòu)想他們的利益。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，這種方法是一種有效方式，投保我們的客戶得到正確的影像相機為他們的目的。的一些問題，我們要求分列如下：
什么類型的望遠鏡，你目前自己的呢？有這方面的資料，讓我們以配合CCD成像相機的參數(shù)，像素大小和領(lǐng)域，以便您的望遠鏡。我們還可以幫助您界面CCD成像照相機的自動導(dǎo)向功能到您的望遠鏡。
你是Mac或PC使用者？由于我們的軟件支持這兩種平臺，我們可以保證您收到正確的軟件。我們也可以回答有關(guān)任何獨特功能，在一個或另一個。我們可以寄給您一個示范的副本，適當?shù)能浖?，供您檢閱。
你是否有望遠鏡的驅(qū)動器基地，你想不想經(jīng)營從遠程計算機呢？公司一樣，軟件bisque全力支持我們的產(chǎn)品與望遠鏡控制和成像相機軟件。
你想不想采取攝影圖像質(zhì)量的深空物體，行星的圖像，或執(zhí)行廣泛的領(lǐng)域搜尋近地小行星或supernovas ？在學(xué)習(xí)關(guān)于您的利益，我們可以更好地引導(dǎo)您以最佳的CCD像素大小和成像等領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用。
你想不想使光度測量變星或確定精確的小行星的職位？從這個信息我們可以向您推薦CCD成像相機型號，并解釋如何使用具體分析的職能，以執(zhí)行這些任務(wù)。我們可以幫助你的特點你的影像相機通過提供額外的技術(shù)數(shù)據(jù)。
你想不想自動引導(dǎo)長期不間斷的作為該公司最的經(jīng)驗，防治荒漠化公約autoguiding我們可以幫助你安裝和運行了CCD autoguider對您的望遠鏡。該模型基金會已享譽全球，為正確的指導(dǎo)就黯淡引導(dǎo)星。不管什么類型的望遠鏡，你自己的，我們可以幫助您正確的接口，它并獲得它工作正常。 sbig CCD成像相機
該sbig產(chǎn)品線構(gòu)成了一系列的thermoelectrically冷卻CCD成像相機設(shè)計的范圍廣泛的應(yīng)用，包括從天文，三色成像，彩色測光，光譜學(xué)，醫(yī)學(xué)成像，密度，化學(xué)發(fā)光和epifluorescence影像等，這包括信息目錄對天文的影像照相機，科學(xué)成像相機， autoguiding ，及配件。我們曾嘗試安排目錄，使我們很容易比較產(chǎn)品的技術(shù)規(guī)格和性能。表中，在產(chǎn)品第比較的一些基本特征，在每個CCD成像相機在我們的產(chǎn)品線。您會看到一個更詳細的設(shè)置規(guī)格與每一個人影像相機描述。
如何開始使用您的CCD成像相機
這一切開始與該軟件。如果有任何公司，以及聞名，其優(yōu)秀的成像相機軟件，它的sbig 。我們ccdops操作軟件，是人所共知的，為它的用戶導(dǎo)向的相機控制功能和穩(wěn)定性。 ccdops是提供免費下載從我們的網(wǎng)站，隨著樣本圖像，您可以顯示和分析，利用圖像處理和分析的職能，該ccdops軟件。你就可以成為徹底熟悉如何，我們的影像照相機的工作和能力的軟件之前，請先購買一成像相機。我們還包括ccdsoftv5和thesky從軟件bisque與我們大部分的攝影機不得收取任何附加費用。 Macintosh用戶收到一個免費的副本之天文館和相機控制軟件，為的MacOS - X操作系統(tǒng)。沒有其他的制造商提供更好的軟件比你所獲得的sbig
相機。新客戶接受他們的CCD成像相機，首先要閱讀安裝在其第ccdops操作手冊。一旦您已經(jīng)閱讀第你應(yīng)該有任何困難，安裝ccdops軟件對您的硬盤驅(qū)動器，連接USB纜線從影像相機到您的電腦，啟動影像相機和在幾分鐘內(nèi)開始把您的第一CCD圖像。我們的許多客戶都感到驚訝它是如何的方便開始采取圖像。更多信息可發(fā)現(xiàn)，通過閱讀圖像處理路段的ccdops和ccdsoftv5手冊。這方面的資料可讓您的進展，以更先進的功能，如自動黑暗的框架減法的圖像，把重點放在成像相機，檢視，分析與處理的圖像上螢?zāi)唬献?，加入圖像，同時自動序列圖像，天體測量和光度測量等。oversaturated圖像等，是典型的初始的問題。我們將幫助您迅速了解如何改善您的圖像。你可以放心,個人技術(shù)支持，當您需要它?？蛻糁С钟媱澨峁┝藄big一個大型收集了顯著的圖像。許多客戶有其圖像發(fā)表在sbig目錄，廣告和各種天文學(xué)雜志。我們歡迎有機會檢討您的圖片，并希望您將充分利用我們的訓(xùn)練有素的工作人員來幫助您改善您的圖片。
使用一種創(chuàng)新的工程方法， sbig研制出一種影像相機功能的所謂軌道＆積累（traccum），其中多張圖片自動注冊，以建立一個單一的長時間曝光。由于長時間曝光構(gòu)成短期圖像總結(jié)合曝光顯著提高決議案通過減少累積望遠鏡周期誤差。在traccum模式，每幅圖像是轉(zhuǎn)移到正確的指導(dǎo)錯誤，并添加到圖像緩沖區(qū)。在此模式下望遠鏡并不需要加以調(diào)整。偉大的敏感性，防治荒漠化公約幾乎保證會有一個實用指南星內(nèi)部的視野。此功能可提供戲劇性的改善，在決議通過減少的影響，周期誤差，并允許無人值守小時長的風(fēng)險。sbig已獲得美國專利編號5365269，為田徑運動積累。雙CCD的自我指導(dǎo)（美國專利編號5,525,793 ）
在1994年與引進模式的ST- 7和ST- 8 CCD成像相機，其中包含兩個單獨的CCD探測器， sbig是能夠完成的目標，引進一個真正的自導(dǎo)的CCD成像相機。能夠選擇引導(dǎo)星與一個單獨的CCD通過充分望遠鏡光圈，相當于有一個thermoelectrically冷卻的CCD autoguider在您的影像相機。此功能已擴大到所有雙傳感器ST系列相機（st-7/8/9/10/2000）和所有的STL系列相機（ stl-1001/1301/4020/6303/11000 ）。1防治荒漠化公約是用于指導(dǎo)和其他收集的形象。他們是安裝在接近，都集中在同一平面，使成像CCD的整合，而PC機使用的指導(dǎo)防治荒漠化公約，以正確的望遠鏡。使用一個單獨的CCD為指導(dǎo)，使100 ％的小學(xué)防治荒漠化公約的積極方面，以被用來搜集的形象。望遠鏡的校正率和限制導(dǎo)航星的規(guī)?？梢元毩⑦x定。測試sbig表明， 95 ％的時間明星光明足夠的指導(dǎo)，將發(fā)現(xiàn)的一tc237跟蹤的CCD移動望遠鏡，使用f/6.3望遠鏡。自我的指導(dǎo)作用迅速確立了自己作為最簡單和最精確的方法，為指導(dǎo)CCD圖像。配售兩探測器在接近在同一焦平面保險盡可能最好的指導(dǎo)。許多長期的綜合風(fēng)險，現(xiàn)在正在出版是采取這種自我指導(dǎo)的方法，生產(chǎn)甚高分辨率圖像深的空間物體。 sbig已獲得美國專利編號為5525793的雙重防治荒漠化公約自律的指導(dǎo)作用。
計算機平臺
sbig已在其獨特的支持，雙方的PC和Macintosh平臺，為我們的相機。成像相機在此目錄的溝通與主機電腦通過標準的串行或USB連接埠視具體型號。由于沒有外部程式在議會的要求與我們的成像攝像系統(tǒng)，我們鼓勵用戶與新的家庭高分辨率的圖形的筆記本電腦。我們提供操作軟件，讓您安裝在您的主機電腦。一旦軟件安裝和通信與影像相機是成立完全控制所有的成像相機功能是通過主機電腦鍵盤。建議的最低要求。