機械外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯-重疊定向?qū)︽V合金板料攪拌摩擦焊縫疲勞行為的影響【中文8980字】【PDF+中文WORD】,中文8980字,PDF+中文WORD,機械,外文,文獻(xiàn),翻譯,重疊,定向,鎂合金,板料,攪拌,摩擦,焊縫,疲勞,行為,影響,中文,8980,PDF,WORD Contents lists available at ScienceDirect International Journal of Fatigue journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue International Journal of Fatigue 100 (2017) 1–11 Effect of overlap orientation on fatigue behavior in friction stir linear welds of magnesium alloy sheets J.F.C. Moraes a, R.I. Rodriguez a, J.B. Jordon a,?, X. Su b a Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401, USA b Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48124, USA a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 22 September 2016 Received in revised form 23 January 2017 Accepted 19 February 2017 Available online 21 February 2017 Keywords: Fatigue Friction stir welding Magnesium Fractography a b s t r a c t In this work, we investigate the effect of sheet stacking orientation on fatigue behavior in friction stir lin- ear welding of AZ31 Mg alloy. It is well known that during friction stir welding, the advancing and retreating flow of the material generated by the tool creates asymmetrical weld features resulting is ani- sotropic mechanical behavior. As such, friction stir welding of overlap joints was carried out on 2 mm thick sheets, where the orientation of the pull direction of the coupon was varied with respect to the tool rotation direction. Subsequently experimental fatigue tests were performed to evaluate this effect of the sheet stacking orientation on cyclic behavior. The fatigue results showed that the overlap joints loaded on the retreating side exhibited superior performance compared to the advancing side. Post-mortem anal- ysis coupled with finite element results suggest that the geometrical shape of the faying surface produced by the advancing and retreating material flow largely determines the number of cycles to failure in these friction stir linear welded overlap joints. 。 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Recently, there has been renewed interest in reducing the weight of vehicles in the automotive industry in order to meet the stringent fuel and green house gas emissions standards. One way to achieve this goal is lightweighting the designs through the use of materials with enhanced strength-to-weight ratios [1]. For example, materials such as Al and Mg alloys, which are known to have high strength-to-weight ratios, are seeing increased use in the body-in-white production. In fact, the employment of light- weight materials, like Mg alloys, can drastically reduce vehicle weight while maintaining satisfactory structural performance. However, traditional welding techniques, such as resistance spot welding (RSW), which is widely used to join traditional metals like steels, are difficult to implement for joining magnesium alloys [1,2]. This difficulty is mainly due to the high electrical and thermal conductivity [3] characteristics of Mg alloys, which results in high electrical currents and thus can produce poor weld quality. While many alternative joining techniques including fasteners for Mg alloys exist, friction stir welding (FSW) is ideally suited for joining Mg alloys [4]. FSW is a solid-state process which limits tempera- tures below the melting point of the material and thus mostly ? Corresponding author. E-mail address: bjordon@eng.ua.edu (J.B. Jordon). eliminates or significantly reduces problems such as solidification, formation of second phases, porosity, embrittlement and cracking [5]. Moreover, the relatively low temperature at which the process occurs enables the FSW joint to achieve lower distortion and resid- ual stresses [5] compared to fusion welding. In automotive manufacturing, the overlap is a commonly used joint configuration. In friction stir linear welding (FSLW), which is a variant of FSW, two sheets can be assembled in an overlap con- figuration, as shown in Fig. 1. In this welding configuration, a rotat- ing tool is plunged into the two materials at a predetermined depth, having the tool shoulder in contact with the top sheet as the tool transverses along the welding segment and the lap linear weld is completed when the tool is retracted [6]. Due to the mate- rial flow and the tool’s direction of travel, two distinctive weld fea- tures are produced in overlap welding: the advancing side; and the retreading side. The advancing side (AS) is the side of the tool where the point velocities are faster (rotation plus translation), whereas the retreating side (RS) is the side of the tool where the pin velocities are slower (rotation minus translation). In FSLW, the faying surface (surfaces in contact in the joint) of the AS usually remains exterior to the weld nugget and points upwards along the weld nugget boundary [7]. On the other hand, the RS curves up and terminates in the nugget. Since the AS side of the weld takes on a hook-like form, it is typically referred to as the hooking defect; whereas, the RS is known as cold lap defect http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2017.02.018 0142-1123/。 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. J.F.C. Moraes et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 100 (2017) 1–11 9 Fig. 1. Coupon layout of friction stir lap welding; (a) retreating side, (b) advancing side. [7]. It is known that these macro features depend on a combination of tool geometry and welding parameters. Furthermore, it has also been established that these features affect the weld strength and decrease the joint load capacity and/or influence crack nucleation and propagation [8]. As the formation of these macro features depends on the heat generated from the friction between the tool and the pieces to be joined, and material flow during the FSW pro- cess, characteristics of FSLW highly depend on tool geometry [6–10]. For example, Yang et al. [6] studied different tool geome- tries and process conditions and their influence on shear strength of AZ31 Mg alloy friction stir lap welds. One of the key results of their research was that a higher tensile load is reached when load- ing the top sheet of the lap joint configuration on the RS versus loading on the AS. A similar study by Yuan et al. [8] evaluated the effect of different tool designs and weld variables on shear strength in FSLW lap joints of AZ31 Mg alloy. In their study, they found that the RS of the joint achieved higher loads compared to the AS with the same process parameters. However, they did not explore the effect of RS and AS configuration on fatigue behaviors. While there exists a few published studies focused on the effect of welding parameters on the static strength of the FSLW in Mg alloys, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the effect of sheet stacking orientation on fatigue performance has not been eluci- dated. As such, the objective of this paper is to quantify the effects of stacking orientation on fatigue characteristics of AZ31 Mg alloy joined by FSLW through both experimental and numerical approaches. 2. Materials and experiments For this study, commercial grade 2 mm thick AZ31 Mg alloy sheets were employed, which contained a nominal chemical com- position of Mg-3.0 wt% Al-1.0 wt% Zn, with a base material yield strength of 250 MPa, and an ultimate strength of 342 MPa [11]. For welding purposes, the sheets were cut to a width of 75 mm and length of approximately 1500 mm. The plates were assembled in an overlap configuration and welded at a tool rotational speed of 2000 rpm and a travel speed of 4.6 mm s 1. A FSW tool having a concave scroll shoulder with 13 mm diameter, a 3.5 mm long triflat threaded pin, a 4.7 mm pin tip diameter, and 6.0 mm pin root was used to weld the lap-shear samples. As shown in Fig. 1a and b, for the same traveling direction and rotation of the tool, the side of the weld to be loaded is defined according to the orientation of the sheets relative to the pull direction. Two sets of FSLW were created in an overlap configuration. The only difference between the two sets of coupons is the overlap orientation (i.e. the orientation of the top and bottom sheets in order to have the advancing or retreating side on the free edge of the top sheet). A schematic drawing of the coupons is shown in Fig. 2a. After welding was com- pleted, the FSLW overlap plates were cut into 30 mm wide by 120 mm long coupons for mechanical testing purposes. Fig. 2b shows the configuration for the coupons oriented to the RS and AS. A MTS servo-hydraulic load frame was used to perform lap shear tensile test (quasi-static) for each sheet stacking configura- tion in order to obtain a representative average ultimate load car- ried by the joint. Three coupons were tested per configuration and a grip-to-grip distance of 60 mm, at an actuator speed of 1 mm min 1 was used during tensile testing. For fatigue testing, the coupons were tested with the same grip-to-grip distance in an MTS servo-hydraulic load frame with a 2.2 kN load cell, under load control condition with a sinusoidal waveform at load ratio R = 0.1 and a frequency of 20 Hz. Shims were used in both the quasi-static and fatigue tests in order to avoid additional bending moments and loads on the test samples. In addition to mechanical testing, analysis of the weld microstructure and postmortem analysis were conducted in this study. Mechanically untested and tested coupons were sectioned parallel to the loading direction, cold mounted in epoxy, ground, and polished. The final polishing was done on a neoprene pad with alumina 0.05 μm in glycol slurry. In order to characterize the microstructure, the mounted coupons were etched using a solution composed of 4.2 g picric acid, 10 ml acetic acid, 10 ml H2O and 70 ml ethanol [12,13]. An optical digital microscope Keyence VHX-1000 was used to evaluate size and shape of the weld fea- tures, the effective sheet thickness, and the transverse crack Fig. 2. (a) Configuration of the friction stir linear welded (FSLW) lap-shear coupon. (b) Schematic of loading configurations: retreating side (RS) and advancing side (AS). Dimensions are in millimeters. propagation under different loading conditions. Microtexture char- acterization of the FSLW coupons was performed using a JEOL 7000 scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with a detec- tor for electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). All samples were electro-polished at 3 V for 20 s using H3PO4 diluted in ethanol (3:5 ratio). EBSD analysis was conducted using 20 kV beam voltage in 0.9 lm steps. Microtexture data was acquired using the AZTEC software from Oxford Instruments and post-processing was done using the HKL Channel 5 package. Microhardness measurements were conducted on the cross sec- tion of the top and bottom sheets with increments of approxi- mately 0.5 mm, using a Wilson hardness testing machine. A load of 100 g with a dwell time of 5 s was applied in order to obtain the Vickers hardness (HV) across the weld nugget. For crack nucle- ation and propagation analysis, fractured surfaces of the fatigue tested coupons were examined in the Jeol 7000 SEM. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Geometrical features A representative cross-section of a FSLW coupon is presented in Fig. 3. As noted earlier, the faying surface on the advancing side (AS) usually exhibits the shape of a hook and curves upwards along the nugget periphery. On the opposite side of the weld, the faying surface on the retreating side (RS) extends through the weld nug- get toward the AS, where this feature is generally referred as cold- lap feature [8]. These distinct features are a result of trapped oxide films that are on the surface of the sheets prior to welding. These trapped oxide film features depend on relative velocities between the tool and work material. The material in front of the rotating tool is pushed upward due to the tool tilt angle. The amount of material being driven upward on the leading side flows around Fig. 3. (a) Cross-section view of a representative friction stir linear weld (FSLW) in overlap configuration where AS is the advancing side and RS is the retreating side. Magnified views of the (b) hooking feature of the AS, (c) cold-lap features in the stir zone, (d) and in the RS. Fig. 4. (a) Locations of EBSD analysis on the cross-section of friction stir linear welded coupon. (b) Inverse pole figures of BM (base material) and SZ (stir zone). (c) Grain size distribution plot. the pin in the rotation direction [14–16], resulting in a hook feature that points upwards (Fig. 3b). As this material flow decelerates on the trailing side, it accumulates resulting in flow away from the tool pin [15], thus leading to the downward pointing lap-feature, as shown in Fig. 3c. Fig. 3d shows the peak height of cold-lap feature. 3.2. Microstructure and hardness Fig. 4 shows the results of the microstructure characterization by EBSD measurements. In particular, inverse pole figures (IPF) illustrate the grain orientation, as well as grain size distribution of the FSLW coupon. Fig. 4a shows the locations of the EBSD mea- surements. For both the base material (BM) and the stir zone (SZ), a strong texture can be observed in Fig. 4b. This strong texture is due to the rolling process of the Mg sheet material in the BM and the large shear deformation caused by the tool in the SZ. Lastly, Fig. 4c shows the grain size distribution comparison between the BZ and the SZ, where the average grain size of SZ was only slightly finer than the BZ. Fig. 5 shows a representative hardness profile of the FSLW cou- pons. The horizontal axis represents the distance from the center of the nugget of the weld in mm. The vertical axis represents the measured Vickers (HV) hardness value. As shown in Fig. 5, the cen- ter of weld nugget exhibited higher hardness compared to outer  Fig. 5. Microhardness profile measurements on a representative friction stir linear weld coupon. Hardness of base material: 59.82 ± 2.69 HV. edges of the SZ. As shown in Fig. 5, hardness values change signif- icantly across the weld. However, the hardness profile of the FSLW exhibited symmetry from the center of the weld outward, showing similar hardness values for the AS and RS. Moreover, there was not a significant difference of hardness measurement in the areas where the fatigue cracks initiated in the AS and RS of the weld. This will be discussed later in this paper. 3.3. Lap-shear tensile behavior Lap-shear tensile tests were conducted to evaluate the joint strength of the AS and RS orientation, where three coupons were tested in both the AS and RS orientations. It is noted that, in a sim- ilar study on AZ31 Mg alloy joints, Yuan et al. [8] reported that the RS orientation achieved higher lap-shear strength when compared to the AS produced under the same welding parameters. While in this study, the welding parameters were slightly different from the work by Yuan et al. [8], the trend in mechanical behavior of the joint performance in this study was similar. In fact, in this study, the average ultimate load of the RS was approximately 50% greater than the AS orientation. Representative load-displacement curves under quasi-static lap-shear testing of the RS and AS coupons are shown in Fig. 6. Regarding the fracture behavior of the coupons under tensile loading, representative cross-sections of fractured coupons are shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7a–c show optical cross-sectional views of a Fig. 6. Representative load versus displacement curves of FSLW lap-shear tests of the retreading side (RS) and advancing side (AS) orientated coupons. fractured AS coupon, while Fig. 7d–f show optical cross-sectional views of a fractured RS coupon. The darker areas of the optical images in Fig. 7b and e show the twinning distribution due to the large scale deformation under monotonic loading conditions. Fig. 7c and f show high magnification of the twinning density in detail. Similar results were reported by Yang et al. [6], where this type of failure is due to localization of deformation, indicated by mechanical twins near the fractured surface. 3.4. Fatigue behavior Fig. 8 shows the experimental results of the fatigue tests of the FSLW lap-shear coupons in the RS and AS orientation. In this figure, the vertical axis represents the load range applied to the joint and the horizontal axis is the corresponding number of cycles to failure, where we define failure as the complete separation of the joint. The arrows on the plot indicate run-outs. It can be observed that the RS orientation exhibited superior fatigue lifetimes compared to the AS orientation at the same cyclic load. In addition, Fig. 8 indicates a nearly linear offset of the fatigue behavior of the RS as compared to the AS orientation. This result suggests a strong correlation to the ultimate strength of the joint and fatigue behavior, which will be discussed later in the paper. Regarding the fracture behavior of the coupons under fatigue loading, Figs. 9 and 10 show the cross-sections of representative failed coupons. For clarification purposes in this study, we classify the fatigue loading into low cycle fatigue (<10,000 cycles) and high cycle fatigue (>10,000) regimes. The cross-sections of failed coupons in the low cycle fatigue regime are depicted in Fig. 9. The low cycle fatigue failure of the AS is shown in Fig. 9a where failure occurred at 503 cycles at a maximum load of 2069 N. The low cycle fatigue failure of the RS occurred at 2620 cycles at a maximum load of 2069 N as shown in Fig. 9d. In both cases, cracks grew in mode I propagation directly through the stir zone and into the surface of the top sheet as shown in detail in Fig. 9b and e. Also, less twinning was observed com- pared to monotonic loading due to lower severity of plasticity as can be seen in detail in Fig. 9c and f. The high cycle fatigue failures are shown in Fig. 10, where fail- ure of the AS presented in Fig. 10a occurred at 353,589 cycles at b) c) a) Tensile AS 50 μm e) f) d) Tensile RS Fig. 7. Failed lap-shear coupons loaded on: (a) advancing side, (d) retreating side. Twinning distribution near the facture: (b) advancing side, (e) retreating side. Higher magnification image showing mechanical twining in detail: (c) advancing side, (f) retreating side. Fig. 8. Experimental results of load range versus the number of cycles to failure of the FSLW lap-shear coupons tested at a load ratio R = 0.1. maximum load of 371 N. Fig. 10d shows the failure of the RS at 437,661 cycles at a maximum load of 570 N. It is important to note that at lower applied amplitudes, the crack propagates through the boundary between the SZ and TMAZ in a mixed-mode (I + II) behavior in both conditions, and evidence of twinning was not optically observed as shown in Fig. 10b and e. Fig. 10c and f show in detail multiple crack propagation directions. Additionally, crack branching was observed that was not observed in the low cycle fatigue samples. This may indicate relatively low residual stresses due to the welding process not having a significant influence on the behavior of the fatigue lives, which is shown in Fig.8. Figs. 11 and 12 show SEM images of fatigue fracture surfaces of the AS and RS orientated coupons. Fig. 11a shows the AS, where failure occurred at 43,368 cycles at a maximum load of 580 N. The ratchet marks indicate that the cracks initiated at multiple locations across the hook tip, and then grew toward the top surface in the direction indicated by the white arrows. A further evaluation Fig. 9. Representative cross-sectional views of fractured low cycle fatigue coupons loaded on: (a) advancing side (503 cycles), (d) retreating side (2620 cycle