喜歡就充值下載吧。。資源目錄里展示的文件全都有，，請放心下載，，有疑問咨詢QQ:414951605或者1304139763 ======================== 喜歡就充值下載吧。。資源目錄里展示的文件全都有，，請放心下載，，有疑問咨詢QQ:414951605或者1304139763 ======================== 鹽城工學(xué)院本科生優(yōu)秀畢業(yè)設(shè)計選編 低速載貨汽車變速器的設(shè)計 機械設(shè)計制造及其自動化 （0260110101） 陳中 指導(dǎo)老師：李書偉 摘 要：課題來源于生產(chǎn)實際，依據(jù)《機動車安全技術(shù)條件》和《汽車機械變速器總成技術(shù)條件》，針對低速載貨汽車的運行特點而設(shè)計。參與了汽車的總體設(shè)計，確定了汽車的質(zhì)量參數(shù)，選擇了合適的發(fā)動機，并且計算出汽車的最高速度。關(guān)于變速器的設(shè)計，首先選擇標準的齒輪模數(shù)，在總檔位和一檔速比確定后，合理分配變速器各檔位的速比，接著計算出齒輪參數(shù)和中心距，并對齒輪進行強度驗算，確定了齒輪的結(jié)構(gòu)與尺寸，繪制出所有齒輪的零件圖。根據(jù)經(jīng)驗公式初步計算出軸的尺寸，然后對每個檔位下軸的剛度和強度進行驗算，確定出軸的結(jié)構(gòu)和尺寸，繪制出各根軸的零件圖。根據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)布置和參考同類車型的相應(yīng)軸承后，按國家標準選擇合適的軸承，然后對軸承進行使用壽命的驗算，最終完成了變速器的零件圖和裝配圖的繪制。此變速器的齒輪都為標準齒輪，檔位數(shù)和傳動比與發(fā)動機參數(shù)匹配，保證了汽車具有良好的動力性和經(jīng)濟性。該變速器具有操縱簡單、方便、傳動效率高、制造容易、成本低廉、維修方便的特點，適合低速載貨汽車的使用。 關(guān)鍵詞：低速載貨汽車；變速器；設(shè)計 Abstract: The topic comes from the production reality, which is based on the safety specifications for power driven vehicles operating on roads and the specifications for the automobile mechanical transmission. It designs the low-speed truck’s movement characteristic. The automobile quality parameters are determined, according to the automobile system design, choosing the appropriate engine, and calculating the maximum speed. When design the transmission, first, we choose the standard gear modulus and determine all speed’s proportions after we choose the number of the transmission’s gears and the first gear, then calculate the gear’s parameter and the center distance, and the gear needs the intensity checking calculation. We determine gear’s structure, then complete drawing of the gears’ component. According to the empirical formula, we preliminary carry on the checking calculation to each gear’s rigidity and the intensity to determine the axis’ structure and size, and thus draw up various axis’ component drawing. After arranged structure and compared with the similar type of vehicle’s bearing, according to the national standard, we select the appropriate bearings, and then calculate the service life of the bearings. Finally drawing of the component and the assembly of the transmission are completed. Because the transmission gear is the standard gear and the number of gears and speed’s proportions match to the engine conditions, which ensure the necessary power and economy. This transmission has many merits of simple operation, efficient, easy manufacturing, low cost, and convenient. Key words: Low-speed Truck；Transmission；Design 1 前言 本課題為低速載貨汽車變速器的設(shè)計，該課題來源于結(jié)合生產(chǎn)實際。研究的主要內(nèi)容是：參與汽車的總體設(shè)計；變速器結(jié)構(gòu)型式分析和主要參數(shù)的確定；變速器結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計。本說明書以設(shè)計低速載貨汽車變速器的傳動機構(gòu)為主線。第2章著重介紹了在參與總體設(shè)計當中，如何確定低速載貨汽車參數(shù)，進而明確變速器應(yīng)滿足的條件及其所受的限制。第3章則重點介紹低速載貨汽車變速器的傳動機構(gòu)的設(shè)計說明。在參與總體設(shè)計當中，首先是對低速載貨汽車的產(chǎn)品技術(shù)規(guī)范和標準進行分析，然后確定低速載貨汽車的總質(zhì)量，以此來選擇合適的發(fā)動機。根據(jù)發(fā)動機的功率以及汽車的總質(zhì)量確定該車的最高速度（滿足低速載貨汽車安全技術(shù)條件）。關(guān)于變速器的設(shè)計，首先選擇合適的變速器確定其檔位數(shù)，接著對工況進行分析，擬訂變速器的各檔位的傳動比和中心距，然后計算出齒輪參數(shù)以選擇合適的齒輪并且對其進行校核，接著是初選變速器軸與軸承并且完成對軸和軸承的校核，最終完成了變速器的零件圖和裝配圖的繪制。 2 低速載貨汽車主要參數(shù)的確定 2.1 質(zhì)量參數(shù)的確定 本課題通過計算選用ma=3500kg。 2.2 發(fā)動機的選型 針對本次設(shè)計任務(wù)選用達到歐Ⅱ排放標準的YD480柴油機。 2.3 車速的確定 計算出Vmax≈62.3km/h,所以該車車速滿足要求。 3 變速器的設(shè)計與計算 3.1 設(shè)計方案的確定 3.1.1 兩軸式 這種結(jié)構(gòu)適用于發(fā)動機前置、前輪驅(qū)動或發(fā)動機后置、后輪驅(qū)動的轎車和微、輕型貨車上，其特點是輸入軸和輸出軸平行，無中間軸。 3.1.2 三軸式 它的第一軸常嚙合齒輪與第二軸的各檔齒輪分別與中間軸的相應(yīng)齒輪相嚙合，且第一、二軸同心。適用于傳統(tǒng)的發(fā)動機前置、后輪驅(qū)動的布置形式。 3.1.3 液力機械式 由液力變矩器和齒輪式有級變速器組成,其特點是傳動比可在最大值和最小值之間的幾個間斷范圍內(nèi)作無級變化，但結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜，造價高，傳動效率低。 3.1.4 確定方案 由于低速載貨汽車一般是傳統(tǒng)的發(fā)動機前置，后輪驅(qū)動的布置形式，同時考慮到制造成本以及便于用戶維護等因素，現(xiàn)選用三軸式變速器。 3.2 零部件的結(jié)構(gòu)分析 通過對齒輪型式、軸的結(jié)構(gòu)、軸承型式的分析，來確定所有零件的結(jié)構(gòu)。 3.3 基本參數(shù)的確定 3.3.1 變速器的檔位數(shù)和傳動比 選擇最低檔傳動比時，應(yīng)根據(jù)汽車最大爬坡度、驅(qū)動車輪與路面的附著力、汽車的最低穩(wěn)定車速以及主減速比和驅(qū)動車輪的滾動半徑等來綜合考慮、確定。它可以根據(jù)汽車最大爬坡度計算，也可以根據(jù)驅(qū)動車輪與路面的附著條件計算。 3.3.2 中心距 商用車變速器的中心距約在80～170mm范圍內(nèi)變化,初選A=100mm。 3.3.3 變速器的軸向尺寸 初選軸向尺寸:（2.4～2.8）A=（2.4～2.8）×100=240～280mm。 3.3.4 齒輪參數(shù) 通過計算并參照同類車型選取標準模數(shù)m=3.5，所有齒輪采用標準齒輪。 3.3.5 各檔齒輪齒數(shù)的分配 首先確定Ⅰ檔齒輪的齒數(shù)，然后修正中心距A=（3.5×60）/2=105mm，接著確定常嚙合傳動齒輪副的齒數(shù)，以及其他檔位的齒輪齒數(shù)，最后確定倒檔齒輪副的齒數(shù)。 3.4 齒輪的設(shè)計計算 3.4.1 幾何尺寸計算 分別根據(jù)齒數(shù)和模數(shù)計算出尺寸。 3.4.2 齒輪的材料及熱處理 本課題變速器齒輪選用材料是20CrMnTi，采用滲碳處理。 3.4.3 齒輪的彎曲強度 因為該變速器所有的齒輪采用同一種材料，所以當校核時只要校核受力最大和危險的檔位齒輪。分別計算出Ⅰ檔、倒檔齒輪的彎曲強度且都滿足要求。 3.4.4 齒輪的接觸強度 常嚙合齒輪副，Ⅰ檔、Ⅱ檔、Ⅲ檔、倒檔的齒輪都滿足強度要求。 3.5 軸的設(shè)計與軸承的選擇 3.5.1 軸的設(shè)計 軸的尺寸可按關(guān)系式初選。首先校核第二軸在各檔位下的強度與剛度，然后校核中間軸在各檔位下的強度與剛度，最后校核倒檔軸的強度與剛度。 3.5.2 軸承的選擇 第一軸后軸承為6209軸承,第二軸后軸承為6307軸承。第二軸前端選用無套圈長圓柱滾子軸承,型號為:KNL20.612×33.325×35；在中間軸上與中間軸齒輪配合的軸承，也選用該種軸承，型號為：KNL25.4×41.208×60.4。 4 結(jié)論 本課題是針對低速載貨汽車而設(shè)計的變速器，基于經(jīng)濟實用的考慮，變速器采用手動機械變速，三軸式傳動機構(gòu)布置方案，有四個前進檔和一個倒檔。典型輕型貨車NJ130系列的變速器齒輪大多采用非標準齒輪，本次設(shè)計的變速器齒輪等零部件貫徹了國家或行業(yè)的最新標準，具有較好的加工和使用性能，結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊、使用維修方便，并可附裝取力機構(gòu)供用戶的特殊需要。 隨著城鄉(xiāng)路況的好轉(zhuǎn)，以及人們對乘車舒適性的要求越來越高，日后可以考慮采用常嚙合斜齒輪傳動，同步器換檔的變速器，而且可以增加一個超速檔，這樣可以使汽車的動力性和經(jīng)濟性有更大地提高。 主要參考文獻 [1] GB7258-2004，機動車運行安全技術(shù)條件[S]. [2] GB18320-2001，農(nóng)用運輸車安全技術(shù)條件[S]. [3] 王望予.汽車設(shè)計[M].北京：機械工業(yè)出版社，2000. [4] 劉惟信.汽車設(shè)計[M].北京：清華大學(xué)出版社,2001. [5] 陳家瑞.汽車構(gòu)造.（下冊）[M].北京：機械工業(yè)出版社，2005. 3 Experimental analysis of a composite automotive suspension arm M. PINFOLD and G. CALVERT (University of Warwick/Rover Group Gaydon, UK) Received 11 November 1992; revised 26 March 1993 In applications where weight saving and parts integration can be achieved, the Rover Group has been investigating the design and manufacture of components from composite materials. The methods used in the different steps in the design- to-manufacture cycle in the high volume automotive industry are relatively well known for a steel component, but are not so well established for a composite component. A design methodology for composites has been emerging in which a principal procedure is design analysis. One of the most established methods of analysisis that using the finite element technique, and this is being supplemented with experimental tests on prototypes using photoelastic analysis and stress pat- tern analysis by thermal emission, coupled with conventional strain gauge moni- toring. Little work has been undertaken to correlate the results obtained from these different test methods and to compare the results with measurements made on an actual component. This paper presents some of the work undertaken concerning the analysis and testing of a composite automotive suspension arm. The results obtained from the three different analysis techniques are compared with experi- mental test results, and their accuracy is discussed. Key words: autmotive suspension arm; stress analysis; finite element method; photoelastic analysis; SPA TE; strain gauges; sheet moulding compound Sol and de Wilde state that composite materials have been used increasingly as structural materials. A reason for this., is that composite materials have high strength to weight and high stiffness to weight ratios which can significantly reduce the weight of a structure. Perhaps the most important feature ofcomposite materials is that their mechanical p:operties can be tailored to meet a specific criterion. However, Johnson et al? suggest that composite design, analysis and fabrication technology must undergo major developments and successful demonstrations before significant structural components will be incorporated in production automobiles and trucks. Composite materials have to compete with steel within the engineering environment. Within the automotive industry this requires a certain amount of technology transfer from places such as the Advanced Technology Centre at the University of Warwick, which work with material manufacturers and automotive engineers to enable understanding about these materials as an alter- native to the traditional materials such as steel. If com- posites are to compete with traditional materials in a real sense, then automotive designers need to be fully aware 0010-4361/94/010059-05 of their strengths and limitations so that they can be one of perhaps many options considered at the concept stage of the design. For this to happen automotive engineers need to catch up on the techniques of designing, testing and manufacturing components from composites. This will include understanding how various methods such as finite element (FE) analysis, stress pattern analysis by thermal emission (SPATE) and photoelastic analysis can be applied to composite components in their design and development. Thus far little work appears to have been undertaken to study whether the results obtained from these different analysis methods correlate with one another or with actual experimental results obtained from testing a real component. In order to study the application and corre- lation of the different analysis methods to composite materials, a composite component - an automotive lower suspension arm - was manufactured. This com- posite component was analysed by the three methods described above and also tested under realistic loading conditions, with experimental results being obtained from strain gauges. 1994 Butterworth-Heinemann ktd COMPOSITES . VOLUME 25 . NUMBER 1 . 1994 59 , B a l l J o i nt Housing Fig. 1 The composite suspension arm DESIGN The existing steel lower suspension arm consists of nine pieces welded together whilst the re-designed composite component-which can be seen in Fig. 1-is a single moulded part. The material used to manufacture the suspension arm was a sheet moulding compound (SMC), comprising a polyester resin bonding agent with a 30% content of randomly arranged short glass fibres and cal- cium carbonate fiIler. The weight of the steel suspension arm is 2.53 kg whilst the re-designed SMC suspension arm complete with bushes and ball joint weighs 1.5 kg. The material properties used for the composite suspension arm in these analyses, obtained from tests carried out at Rovers materials laboratory, were Youngs modulus = 10.5 GPa, Poissons ratio = 0.26 and density = 1.8 x 10 -6 kg mm -3. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Prior to undertaking experimental analysis of an actual engineering component, some initial validation work was required to gain confidence in the techniques when applied to sheet moulding compound. Therefore, fiat plates, beams and discs constructed from SMC were ana- lysed under various loading conditions before progress- ing on to the designed component. Most validation tests were carried out using strain- gauged specimens to correlate with the finite element analysis results. Although it is recognized that SMC is not an isotropie material due to some fibre orientation during processing, for the purposes of analysis the mater- ial was assumed to be isotropic. Also, when the actual SMC suspension arm was cut up and examined, signifi- cant fibre distribution was observed in the ribs. It is felt that the correlation between the experimental and analy- sis results validated this assumption in the case of this particular component. Strain gauge tests Before undertaking the experimental test work, the com- posite component was mounted via its rubber mounting bushes onto a relatively infinitely stiff structure. It is very difficult to cover all of the loading conditions when con- ducting experimental tests and thus a worst-case scenario is usually assumed. The worst-case loading condition on suspension components is known as pot-hole brake. This attempts to simulate the vehicle falling into a deep pot-hole at 30 mph with the brakes fully applied at the point of impact. The resultant fore/aft and lateral loads are then calculated based on the weight and velocity of the vehicle. Due to the limitations of the test rig the full pot-hole loads could not be applied to the component, and thus reduced loads with the same resultant direction as the pot-hole loads were applied and the results scaled. The loads applied for the full pot-hole brake case were 24.2 kN in X and 8.2 kN in Y, and for the reduced load case were 5.9 kN in X and 2.02 kN in Y - see Fig. 1. The strain gauges used consisted of six three-axis rosette gauges and 13 single-grid gauges, with 2.5 mm grid lengths, chosen to fit into the radii of the component in an attempt to measure the maximum strain, Gauges were situated near the ball joint housing, where the loads were applied, and around the radii of the body mounting bushes, where the component would be mounted to the car subframe. Additional strain gauges were situated on some of the strengthening ribs and close to the anti-roll bar mounting position. SPA TE analysis Stress pattern analysis by thermal emission (SPATE) can be used to determine the surface stresses of components by studying the small changes in temperature due to cyclic loading conditions. SPATE equipment comprises a detector unit with scanning head, an analogue signal processing unit and a digital electronic data unit. The system works by detecting the minute temperature changes which occur when a structure is cyclically loaded. The infra-red detector scans the structure and correlates the measured output with a reference signal from the loading system. An electronic data processing system correlates the detected stress-induced thermal fluctuations with the loading reference signal. A colour contour map of the sum of the principal stresses (cr + 4) is then plotted, together with a bar chart giving actual values. This correlation of signals effectively eliminates all signal frequencies other than those caused by the loading system, i.e., all ambient temperature fluctua- tions. The SPATE system has a temperature resolution of 0.001C, and a spatial resolution of less than I mm. This type of analysis has been shown by a number of authors TM to also be applicable to non-isotropic mater- ials such as composites, and the small errors (6%) demonstrated from such studies when compared with theoretical or FE results are felt to be due to inaccuracies in the material data used 4. It is apparent from the studies undertaken that the use of thermoelastic stress analysis to evaluate stresses and strains in anisotropic composite materials is more complex than for isotropic materials. However, it has been shown that the technique can provide valuable qualitative information on stress distri- bution, effects of surface defects and crack growth predictions. It has also been demonstrated that, given accurate details of material properties including expan- sion coefficients, quantitative results can be obtained depending upon the degree of anisotropy of the material. Prior to undertaking a full SPATE analysis of the suspen- sion arm it was necessary to determine a calibration factor for the material used. This can be achieved in two ways, either by loading a disc of the material in compres- sion and comparing the SPATE output with the theoreti- 60 COMPOSITES. NUMBER 1 . 1994 cal solution, or by strain gauging directly onto the component in an area of even stress distribution, thereby obtaining a direct comparison with the SPATE output. Both methods were used in this case, but direct calib- ration with strain gauges can overcome a lot of the problems, thus allowing significant information to be obtained from the SPATE output. Photoelastic analysis The majority of photoelastic work investigating the mac- romechanical behaviour of composite materials has been undertaken using photoelastic coating techniques. This is done to avoid the complexities of constructing a photo- elastic model with anisotropic properties and thus con- structing a composite like the original which would lose its transparency and could not be analysed. However, for complex fibre lay-ups this would be the only method of conducting photoelastic analysis, and thus some research has been undertaken investigating the use of the actual composites j7-30. Reasonable results have been obtained from such analyses, but with limitations due to the neces- sity for transparency within the composite. However, the composite component considered in this study was manufactured from SMC and the material was assumed to be isotropic, thus simplifying the creation of a photo- elastic model. A three-dimensional epoxy resin model of the suspension arm was constructed for the photoelastic analysis. The model was then loaded in a representative manner, with scaled-down loads, and subjected to a stress freezing cycle. This involves heating the model up to the mater- ials glass transition temperature, at which point the Youngs modulus changes, and the model deforms under the applied loads. The model is then slowly cooled, avoiding any uneven temperature distribution which could result in unwanted thermal stresses. During the cooling cycle the deformations and stresses are locked into the model. When viewed under polarized light the three-dimensional model is a jumble of interference fringes. In order to determine both magnitude and direc- tion of the principal stresses at any point, a slice is removed and observed under polarized light. By count- ing the fringes the stresses in the model can be calculated and converted into actual stress in the component. This is done by means of proportionality, between the model and component materials, and the loading and dimensio- nal parameters. The lower suspension arm is mounted to the rest of the car via rubber mounting bushes. Investigations were carried out as to the possibility of modelling these mounting bushes. However, experiments with silicon and foam rubbers showed that the required scaled-down stiffness of the bushes during stress freezing at elevated temperatures could not be maintained. The photoelastic analysis thus assumed that the suspension arm was solidly mounted. FINITE ELEMENT ANAL YSIS The composite suspension arm was modelled using approximately 1300 of the STIF45 ANSYS solid ele- ments. The suspension arm is mounted to the subframe via rubber mounting bushes; these were modelled with spring elements to represent the stiffness of the bushes and to create a realistic load distribution throughout the component. Loads were applied to the FE model via beam elements at the ball joint. Three load cases were analysed using the ANSYS FE software. The first load case simulated the full pot-hole brake loads. The second simulated the reduced load used in the tests due to the limitations of the test rig, to enable comparisons with the results from the experimental strain gauge analysis. These two load cases used spring elements to simulate the stiffness of the rubber mounting bushes. The third load case again used the reduced loads but this time omitted the spring elements; i.e., the suspen- sion arm was modelled as being solidly mounted. This third load case was required to correlate with the SPATE and photoelastic analyses. RESUL TS Finite element analysis Analysis of the suspension arm showed that the maxi- mum equivalent stress in the component for the load case considered is very close to the ultimate tensile strength of the proposed material for the pot-hole loading condition, which is the worst loading condition. This means that the component may need to be manufactured from a differ- ent material, or that other materials need to be posit- ioned in areas of high stress to strengthen the component locally. Due to constraints upon the amount of computer disc space available, the number of elements used within the FE model was relatively low and thus the size of the elements within the area of the radii around the body mounting bushes was too large to detect any large stress concentrations. Also, the types of element used around these areas, due to the geometry of the component, were a mixture of brick, wedge and tetrahedral. The latter shape tends to be too stiff to give good results and is not recommended. If more detailed results were required in these areas, then these radii would have to be modelled in greater detail with more and smaller elements in the areas of high stress gradient. Photoelastic analysis The analysis of the photoelastic model of the suspension arm was undertaken assuming that the directions of the maximum principal stresses lay in a horizontal plane through the model in the direction of the fore/aft load. Whilst this is not strictly true in practice due to local geometry effects in certain areas, the assumption gave sufficiently accurate results. If obvious discrepancies were found in particular areas then it was possible to take slices from different planes. Maximum stresses were seen to occur in the vicinity of the ball joint housing and the body mounts. Due to the ability of photoelastic analysis to pinpoint very small areas of high stress, the maximum stress values given by photoelasticity tended to be higher than the strain gauge results. For example, maximum stress levels in the internal radius of the leading body mount were found to be 43 MPa compared with a SPATE value of 26 MPa. This difference can be explained by examin- ing the slice taken through the photoelastic model which shows that the maximum stress only occurs at a position COMPOSITES. NUMBER 1 . 1994 61 Table 1. Stress results (MPa) for full load con- ditions Position Strain gauges FE Photoelastic Ball joint housing 176 165 176 spanning 3 mm and that the stress values either side of the maximum are around 25 MPa. SPA TE analysis The initial SPATE scan showed large bands of stress running across the mounting areas and some confusion as to whether these areas were in tension or compression. The problem was identified as excessive movement in the suspension arm body mounting positions due to distor- tion of the rubber bushes as experienced in the strain gauge tests. SPATE is equipped with a motion compen- sator device if required, which deflects the scanning mirrors inside the detector in time with the oscillations of the test-piece, thereby eliminating the movement. How- ever, in this particular case, the geometry and direction of movement could not be eliminated over the entire area at the same time, and thus it was necessary to remove the rubber bushes and to replace them with aluminium ones. The SPATE analysis was repeated with the solid bushes and showed areas of high tensile stress (26 MPa) along the leading edge and around the inner radius of the leading body mounting position. Unfortunately, no SPATE analysis could be undertaken at the ball joint end of the component as it was obscured by the large loading adaptor required to fit the hydraulic actuator supplying the cyclic loading. COMPARISON OF RESULTS It should be clarified that the stress values quoted in the tables from the strain gauge results were calculated from the rosette gauges to give a value of maximum principal stress. The photoelastic analysis also gives maximum principal stresses unless the values are taken inboard of a free edge in which case they are differences in principal stresses (o.- o-,). SPATE analysis gives an output in the form of the summation of the principal stresses (or. + a2) whereas the FE output can be in any form required (in this case yon Mises). Due to the geometry of the compo- nent and the way in which the loads were applied, the values of or2 and cr 3 were always small, and thus direct comparisons could be made between the different analy- sis methods without further conversion. Table l compares the results obtained for the maximum pot-hole load conditions. The maximum stress values all occur at the ball joint area and correlate very well. These resultant stresses for the strain gauges and photoelasti- city were calculated from the results obtained for the reduced load. The model stress was multiplied by a load- ing factor as the ratio between the fore/aft and lateral loading remained constant and in the same proportion as the full pot-hole brake load applied to the suspension arlTI. The results of the analyses undertaken with reduced Table 2. Stress results (MPa) for redTJced loads with mounting bushes Position Strain gauges FE Inner radius of body 25 20 mount Ball joint housing 49 40 Table 3. Stress results (MPa) for reduced loads without mounting bushes Position FE SPATE Photoelastic Inner radius of body 22 mount Ball joint housing 30 26 43 (25) 42 (25) loading but with the mounting bushes included can be seen in Table 2. Table 3 presents the results of the analyses undertaken with reduced loading and without the mounting bushes being used. The stress given by the photoelastic analysis is concentrated at a very small point whereas the stress given by FE analysis is averaged over a relatively large area. In the case of the photoelastic results, an average of the nominal stresses on both sides of the concen- tration point is also quoted in brackets to give a fairer comparison. Compared with the strain gauge results, the values given by SPATE are very similar for the maximum stress. In theory SPATE should be more effective than strain gauges when investigating stress concentration effects, as it is measuring values over a smaller area depending upon its distance from the object during scanning. In this case the measurement point of SPATE was set at I mm diameter compared with a 2.5 mm grid le