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1、自考《現(xiàn)代語言學》復習講義 一、?？碱}型 1.填空 2?單項選擇 3?判斷正誤 4?解釋詞語并舉例說明 對名詞解釋并舉一兩個例子進行說明 5?回答問題 做題要求：用英文進行答題。 二、各章節(jié)學習要點 Chapter 1 Introduction （緒論） I. What is lin guistics? 1.1 Defi nition （語言學的定義） P.1 Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scientific study of language Linguistics studies not any part

2、icular Ianguage, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in Ianguage in gen eral. 1.2 The Scope of lin guistics （語言學的研究范疇） P.2— 4 The study of Ianguage as a whole is often called general linguistics（普誦語言學 ）.This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appli

3、cable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those bran ches of study which relate lin guistics to the research of other areas. Main branches of linguistics 語言學的主要分支： 1） phonetics （語音學） 2）phonology （音系學） 3）morphology （形態(tài)學） 4）syntax （句 法學） 5）semantics （語義學） 6）pragmatics （語用學） The study of all th

4、ese aspects of Ian guage forms the core of lin guistics. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applicati ons is gen erally known as applied linguistics. Macrolinguistics 宏觀語言學：1） Psychol

5、ingusitcs 心理語言學）；2） Sociolinguistics 社會語言 學）；3） Anthropological linguistics （人類語言學）；4） Computational linguistics （計算語言學） 1.3 Some importa nt dist inctions in lin guistics P.4— 7 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （規(guī)定性和描述性） Examples: Don 'say X. People don 'say X. Moder n lin guistics, i.e., li

6、nguistic study carried out i n this cen tury is mostly descriptive. 1.3.2 Synchron ic vs. diachro nic （共時性和歷時性） In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. 1.3.3 Speech and writi ng （口頭語和書面語） Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.

7、Modern linguistics regards the spoken Ianguage as primary , not the written. 1.3.4 Lan gue and parole （語言和言語） The distinction between Iangue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th cen tury. 1.3.5 Compete nee and performa nee （語言能力和語言運用） Similar to Saussure ' d

8、istinction between Iangue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance , which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 '. While Saussure'distinction and Chomsky ' are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociologicalview of Ian gu

9、age and his no tio n of Ian gue is a matter of social conven ti ons, and Chomsky looks at Ian guage from a psychological point of view and to him compete nee is a property of the mind of each in dividual. 2. What is Ian guage? 2.1 Defin iti ons of Ian guage p.9 Lan guage is a system of arbitrary

10、vocal symbols used for huma n com mun icatio n.（ 語言是人類在交際 中使用的一套任意的聲音符號系統(tǒng)。 ） Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal com muni cati on system. 2.2 Desig n features p.11 —14 Design features refer to the defining properties of human Ianguage that d

11、istinguish it from any animal system of com muni cati on A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett . He specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here. 1） Arbitrari ness （任意性） Lan guage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relati on shi

12、p betwee n meanings and soun ds. While Ianguage is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary . The arbitrary nature of Ianguage is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for Ianguage to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2） Productivity （創(chuàng)造性） Productivity is unique to huma

13、 n Ian guage. 3） Duality （雙重性） Lan guage is a system, which con sists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of soun ds, which is meanin gless. 4） Displaceme nt （移位性） Lan guage can be used to refer to things which are prese nt or not prese

14、nt, real or imagi ned matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places. In contrast, no animal communication possess this feature. 5） Cultural transmission （文化傳遞性） While human capacity of Ianguage has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire Ian guage, the d

15、etails of any Ian guage system are not gen etically tran smitted, but in stead have to be taught and lear ned. Chapter 2 Phonology 音系學） 1. The phonic medium of language （語言的聲音媒介） p.15—16 Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural Ianguages as vehicles for com muni cati on.

16、 Of the two media of Ian guage, speech is more basic tha n writ ing. For lin guists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing; their dada for investigation and analysis are mostly draw n from authe ntic, everyday speech. 2. Phonetics 語音學） 2.1 What is pho netics? p.16—17 P

17、honetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world ' Ianguages. articulatory phonetics （發(fā)音語音學 ）；auditory phonetics （聽覺語音學）；acoustic phonetics （聲 學語音學） Of the three branches of phonetics, the Iongest established, and until

18、recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics. 2.2 Orga ns of speech （發(fā)音器官） p.17— 22 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: the pharyngeal cavity （咽月空）一the throat, the oral cavity （口月空）—the mouth, and the nasal cavity（鼻 腔）—t

19、he nose.（人類的發(fā)聲器官都被包括在三個重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔 一即咽喉；口腔 一即嘴； 和鼻腔一即鼻子。） 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds — broad and narrow transcriptions （ 語音的正字標 音法一寬式標音法和嚴式標音法） Two ways to tran scribe speech sounds are now available. One is the tran scripti on with letter-symbols only and the other is the t

20、ranscription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics（附加符號）.The former is called broad transcription . This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. The latter is called narrow transcription . This is really the transcription required and used by the phoneti

21、cians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. Chapter 3 Morphology （形態(tài)學） ^Definition （形態(tài)學的定義） Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words an

22、d the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology （屈折形態(tài)學）and lexical or derivational morphology （詞匯或派牛詞匯學） .The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation . 2.Morpheme （詞素） p.49 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest mea

23、ningful un it of Ian guage （詞素：語言最小的意義單位） Just as a phon eme is the basic un it in the study of pho no logy, so is a morpheme the basic un it in the study of morphology. The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kin ds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning（詞匯意義和語法意義）.The morphemes such as man”

24、，-“y ”，fbach”，-er ”，dark”，-bn"in manly，teacher， darken convey a lexical meaning，while the morphemes such as -es， -ed， -ing in teaches， played ， raining convey a grammatical meaning. 鏈接： Morpheme is the smallest un it of Ian guage in terms of relati on ship betwee n expressi on and content，a un it

25、that cannot be divided into further smaller un its without destro ying or drastically altering the meaning，whether it is lexical or grammatical，e.g. boys---boy+-s in dicates plurality checking---check+-i ng disappo in tme nt---dis-+appo in t+-me nt 2.2 Types of morphemes p.50 Morphemes are clas

26、sified into free morphemes and bound morphemes. free morpheme （自 由詞素 ） root 「（詞根） morpheme bound morpheme （粘著詞素）廠 inflectional affix（ 屈折詞綴） prefix （前綴） affix Y （詞綴） ^derivati onal affix -suffix （后綴）） Free morphemes are morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely

27、 all by themselves or in comb in ati on with other morphemes. Take help, quick, able, warm for example, they can be used freely all by themselves, at the same time, they can also be used in comb in ati on with other morphemes as in helper, quicke n, disable, warm-hearted. Bound morphemes are morph

28、emes are the morphemes which cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb ined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes. A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, defi

29、nite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example, the root geo-” bears the meaning of the earth ” ;whe n it comb ines with ano ther root -ology ”，mea ning a branch of learning , we get the word geology ” ,which means the study of the earth 'structure. ” Af

30、fixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational . Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The inflectional affixes in English in clude: -（e）s, in dicat ing plurality of nouns -（e

31、）s, indicating third person singular, present tense -（e）d, in dicati ng past tense for all three pers ons -ing, in dicat ing progressive aspect -er, i ndicat ing comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs -est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs -‘，in dicat ing the posses

32、sive case of nouns Derivati onal affixes are added to an existi ng form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation （派生法）and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative （派生詞）.The existing form to which

33、a derivational affix can be added is called a stem（詞干）.A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself一 e.g. tolerate root toler- "+affix -ate” quick free morpheme quick ”+ affix -ly ” careless ness free morpheme care” + affix -less” + derivative careless" + affix -ness” Ac

34、cord ing to the its positi on in the new word, affixes are divided into two kin ds: prefixes（前綴）and suffixes （后綴）.（p.53） Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exceptions are the prefixes be-" and en（m）-” Added to adjectives or n

35、ouns they turn the words into verbs, e.g. little- belittle, large-enlarge, rich-enrich, body-embody Suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the origi nal word and in many cases change its part of speech （p.54） 2.2.3 Morphological rules p.54 In using the morphological ru

36、les, we must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require differe nt affixes to create the same cha nge. A knowledge of the derivational affixes and the morphological rules is very helpful in our study of En glish especially for enlarging our vocabulary, but such a kno wledge is n

37、ot to be overused. 3. Compounding 復合法） p.55 Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in En glish. In terms of morphemic an alysis, derivati on can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compo unding the comb in ati on of t

38、wo or sometimes more tha n two words to create new words. 3.1 Types of compo und words There are various ways to classify the compo und words. One of them is to look at the parts of speech of the comp onent words. Words of various parts of speech can be comb ined to form compo un ds. 3.2 Features

39、 of compo unds Despite the various formati ons, all compo unds share the follow ing feature. 1. 2. Orthographically （從正字法的角度看） A compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words. 3. 3. Syntactically （從句法的角度看） The part of speech of the compo und

40、 is gen erally determ ined by the part of speech of the sec ond eleme nt. 5. 4. Sema ntically （從語義的角度看） The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum of the meanings of its comp onen ts. 7. 8. Phonetically （ 從發(fā)音的角度看） The stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.