1961_臥式雙面23軸組合鉆床前主軸箱設(shè)計(jì),臥式,雙面,23,組合,鉆床,主軸,設(shè)計(jì) 黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 1 頁(yè)汽車(chē)工業(yè) CAD 教育和培訓(xùn)大衛(wèi)?A?菲爾德通用汽車(chē)公司研究開(kāi)發(fā)和規(guī)劃中心，美國(guó) 480-106-359 ，30500，48090-9055摘要：20 世紀(jì) 50 年代，被展望以及被卓越指定的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)（CAD）系統(tǒng)，他們?cè)诮裉炱?chē)制造業(yè)通過(guò)連續(xù)的改善和技術(shù)突破使得自己進(jìn)入了中心的角色。這篇文章強(qiáng)調(diào)平行并且繼續(xù)的在計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)的用戶(hù)的訓(xùn)練和教育需要方面的演化。鑒于計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的在通用汽車(chē)快速發(fā)展歷史，這篇文章將計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)用戶(hù)進(jìn)行了分類(lèi)，并且在汽車(chē)制造業(yè)方面提出他們當(dāng)今和將來(lái)的需要。在教育和訓(xùn)練需求方面的變化，造成教育和工業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)的挑戰(zhàn)。關(guān)鍵詞：CAD 教育, CAD 訓(xùn)練基本介紹在這篇文章里計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)模型數(shù)學(xué)上意味著物理物體的準(zhǔn)確的幾何描述，描述了包括數(shù)值數(shù)據(jù)和算法規(guī)定對(duì)象的幾何學(xué)。計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)然后提供方法創(chuàng)造，操作并且交流這些幾何學(xué)描述。為了集中于與教育有關(guān)的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)以及在汽車(chē)工業(yè)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)用戶(hù)的需要，首先簡(jiǎn)述計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)在通用汽車(chē)的歷史。相似的內(nèi)容可以被記載在其他制造業(yè)企業(yè)。據(jù)一份在 50 年代后期通用汽車(chē)內(nèi)部文件的書(shū)面大會(huì)，工程師概述了一個(gè)雄心勃勃的項(xiàng)目的詳細(xì)規(guī)格，，即現(xiàn)代原型 CAD 系統(tǒng)。資料可靠地來(lái)源于 20 世紀(jì) 40 年代后期，伺服機(jī)制和數(shù)字電子計(jì)算機(jī)的一次進(jìn)行中的發(fā)展，為一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)提供了的可行性和動(dòng)力。雖然這個(gè)文件直接描述了通過(guò)控制設(shè)計(jì)和制造來(lái)節(jié)約成本的好處、減少勞動(dòng)力、周?chē)斓淖兓?、以及工程師和設(shè)計(jì)人員之間通信的改善，文件沒(méi)有預(yù)計(jì)最后計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)在設(shè)計(jì)和生產(chǎn)過(guò)程內(nèi)的發(fā)展提供好處的大小。工程師， 特別是他們的大部分試驗(yàn)工作即將減少的機(jī)械工程師， 將在工人，例如缺乏實(shí)踐的草圖設(shè)計(jì)師，利用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)在復(fù)雜的情況里進(jìn)行技能的訓(xùn)練。例如，計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)使機(jī)械工程師能夠空前大規(guī)模使用有限元分析(FEA)。黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 2 頁(yè)在 20 世紀(jì) 90 年代，這個(gè)被提議的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)的細(xì)節(jié)基本上用來(lái)描述使用中的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)。這些細(xì)節(jié)反映了古怪的融合推動(dòng)現(xiàn)有技術(shù)與要求，但不可能在那個(gè)時(shí)間達(dá)到，提供了一個(gè)健全的商業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)情況下，為 CAD 所描述的改進(jìn)工作流程和項(xiàng)一些詳細(xì)的數(shù)學(xué)描述。難以置信的是，直到近三十年后，一些技術(shù)仍然不符合規(guī)格！這份歷史資料的最初段落清楚打下一個(gè)依賴(lài)數(shù)學(xué)的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)。并且， 作為在制造業(yè)里的工程師，，那些作者此外強(qiáng)調(diào)技術(shù)工具，產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)的發(fā)展，特別是生產(chǎn)工具和機(jī)械加工，都是基于現(xiàn)在叫做計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)技術(shù)。重點(diǎn)在稱(chēng)呼和數(shù)字控制的機(jī)器支配討論。然而是普通主題，保存時(shí)間，創(chuàng)建幾何學(xué)，數(shù)據(jù)，準(zhǔn)確的維護(hù)并且控制， 為評(píng)價(jià)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)的質(zhì)量提供一個(gè)極好的初始表。連續(xù)的改進(jìn)和技術(shù)的突破，已經(jīng)為計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)在今天的汽車(chē)的工業(yè)進(jìn)入中心角色提供動(dòng)力。連續(xù)的改進(jìn)的最明顯的例子發(fā)生在計(jì)算機(jī)的速度，能力和流量方面。計(jì)算的動(dòng)力使更顯著的工程問(wèn)題的分析和在計(jì)算上吸收增加集中的計(jì)算機(jī)圖形環(huán)境成為可能。在 20 世紀(jì) 80 年代中期計(jì)算機(jī)圖形硬件和軟件期間最后使造型師在 20 世紀(jì) 50 年代展望的實(shí)時(shí)形象化成為可能。 軟件方面的發(fā)展融入了多種多樣的味道。數(shù)學(xué)通過(guò)提供新數(shù)學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)和算法起決定性作用。幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)人們熟知的數(shù)學(xué)經(jīng)歷了新發(fā)展，并且擁有成功的研究成果。從數(shù)學(xué)的發(fā)展基礎(chǔ)上，軟件在速度，穩(wěn)定性，準(zhǔn)確和適應(yīng)性方面得到了顯著的改進(jìn)。在硬件和軟件方面的專(zhuān)家，能指向商業(yè)的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)，有時(shí)用驚人的慣性或者勉強(qiáng)，最終達(dá)到的突破。另一方面，乏味但是同樣重要的任務(wù)(例如數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)，表面和固體和堅(jiān)定的計(jì)算的算法的數(shù)學(xué)畫(huà)像)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)已經(jīng)驚人的使數(shù)學(xué)模型和生產(chǎn)過(guò)程依靠的幾何學(xué)信息得到了巨大的改善。與工作直接相關(guān)的產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)和制造業(yè)具有很高的視覺(jué)內(nèi)容，從最早的設(shè)計(jì)階段到最后的生產(chǎn)，計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)已成為過(guò)程的中心環(huán)節(jié)。然而， 完成他們的任務(wù)，大多數(shù)當(dāng)今的工程師不必了解計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)模型和計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)依靠的復(fù)雜的數(shù)學(xué)和計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)。從設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明，到產(chǎn)品分析，到調(diào)整工具的生產(chǎn)，等等，結(jié)合這些任務(wù)，計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)通過(guò)給合適的幾何學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)提供鏈并且無(wú)數(shù)軟件包接口而形象化。計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)能夠創(chuàng)造和產(chǎn)品信息控制。允許實(shí)際直接視覺(jué)上的，以及最重要的是，準(zhǔn)確與設(shè)計(jì)，發(fā)展，分析和生產(chǎn)進(jìn)行通訊。這篇文章將把計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)用戶(hù)進(jìn)行劃分，根據(jù)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)將各種各樣專(zhuān)門(mén)技能水平的進(jìn)行分組。以下部分，黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 3 頁(yè)按照他們對(duì)數(shù)學(xué)知識(shí)和計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué) CAD 增長(zhǎng)的需要處理與 CAD 相關(guān)這些小組的需要。文章以電話(huà)來(lái)結(jié)束全部計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)用戶(hù)獲得一個(gè)更高的發(fā)展的空間推理的感覺(jué)。多數(shù)人的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)美國(guó)有超過(guò) 100 萬(wàn)位培訓(xùn)的工程師。即使計(jì)算機(jī)影響他們的全部工作，他們對(duì)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的使用也從不非常依賴(lài)到完全依賴(lài)變化。最初，強(qiáng)調(diào)人的設(shè)計(jì)和計(jì)算機(jī)的計(jì)算，被叫做通用汽車(chē)的計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)，自從有了計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)這一概念開(kāi)始，制造工業(yè)就成為計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)非常強(qiáng)大的用戶(hù)。對(duì)創(chuàng)造設(shè)計(jì)的重點(diǎn)再度出現(xiàn)了，也就是說(shuō)，在 CAD 的發(fā)展的到開(kāi)發(fā) CAD 作為一件商品，CAD 極大的成功在設(shè)計(jì)的全面過(guò)程中轉(zhuǎn)移了 C 的主體性。汽車(chē)和卡車(chē)拆卸成為數(shù)千個(gè)部分。 即使進(jìn)入 20 世紀(jì) 80 年代中期，草圖設(shè)計(jì)師將這些部分的幾何學(xué)、調(diào)整工具生產(chǎn)以及把部分零件裝配進(jìn)汽車(chē)記錄在藍(lán)圖上。一旦計(jì)算機(jī)圖形變得具備交互式性和可靠性，這群草稿設(shè)計(jì)者和他們產(chǎn)生的這噸紙就分別成為設(shè)計(jì)者和電子記錄。航空航天工業(yè)在歷史上工程師曾經(jīng)也是設(shè)計(jì)者，與其不同的是，這些草圖設(shè)計(jì)師沒(méi)有接受任何工程師的教育。在汽車(chē)制造業(yè)內(nèi)，設(shè)計(jì)者一般使用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)創(chuàng)造和儲(chǔ)存幾何學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)。這些任務(wù)與通常使用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)挽回并且操作輸入的幾何學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)工程分析軟件的工程師的工作形成對(duì)比。極端下，工程師在從一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)者創(chuàng)建的模型產(chǎn)生的有限元網(wǎng)絡(luò)里利用一個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)，除產(chǎn)生自動(dòng)網(wǎng)眼產(chǎn)生的基本數(shù)據(jù)之外，創(chuàng)造有攝影現(xiàn)實(shí)主義特別的技術(shù)意見(jiàn)。分開(kāi)汽車(chē)的工程師和用不同的方式使用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的設(shè)計(jì)者的這一劃分正在緩慢地改變。遵循這一劃分產(chǎn)生的那些問(wèn)題和考慮計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的當(dāng)今和歷史角色，將為這一劃分提供一個(gè)遠(yuǎn)景。建議在工程師和設(shè)計(jì)者的教育和訓(xùn)練方面的變化將從這個(gè)視角出現(xiàn)。在 20 世紀(jì) 60 年代后期和原始計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)離開(kāi)機(jī)構(gòu)內(nèi)部的研究與開(kāi)發(fā)環(huán)境的早期的 20 世紀(jì) 70 年代期間， 草圖設(shè)計(jì)師和工程師使用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)創(chuàng)造幾何學(xué)。工程師把計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)視為一件工具被更進(jìn)一步為順流象結(jié)構(gòu)分析那樣的應(yīng)用發(fā)展，計(jì)算機(jī)控制機(jī)器加工等等。草圖設(shè)計(jì)師仍然從工程師那里收到說(shuō)明并且為起草使用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)作為一件工具。像一項(xiàng)主要的新技術(shù)的任何實(shí)施一樣，計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的最初實(shí)施需要許多小草圖設(shè)計(jì)師和工程師的訓(xùn)練。在計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)方面的連續(xù)的改進(jìn)，不過(guò)，有主要的結(jié)果。軟件的最新推介和越來(lái)越多有關(guān)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的應(yīng)用軟件需要對(duì)連續(xù)訓(xùn)練的承黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 4 頁(yè)諾。接著發(fā)生的訓(xùn)練的機(jī)構(gòu)體制為草圖設(shè)計(jì)師（現(xiàn)在叫的設(shè)計(jì)者） ，不僅使計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)的介紹成為可能，而且與相互作用的那些工程師為一寬范圍的工程師的橫剖面；在第 5 部分的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)訓(xùn)練，包括產(chǎn)品，生產(chǎn)，釋放，工程師，僅以這些為例。在此之外與計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)聯(lián)系，另外小的方面，跟主要數(shù)學(xué)家和電腦專(zhuān)家一起，研發(fā) CAD。他們的需要從實(shí)質(zhì)上不同計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)用戶(hù)的新多數(shù)。 第 3 部分決定新角色和需要。同時(shí)， 一非常大組織的工程師在設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)和使用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)的緊迫的發(fā)展的生產(chǎn)當(dāng)時(shí)從社區(qū)的計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)家，工程師，數(shù)學(xué)家和科學(xué)家那里進(jìn)化的商業(yè)軟件包。這匯合由 CAD 幫助刺激了解決前面提到的二分化。通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)化和去除設(shè)計(jì)師和工程師的乏味的工作。CAD 講清楚決議要求在基本的課程之外的附加培訓(xùn)和教育。已經(jīng)在教育機(jī)構(gòu)的負(fù)擔(dān)的課程使新的要求難實(shí)施。這些另外的要求不可能替換技術(shù)基礎(chǔ); 看見(jiàn)顯示的第 5 部分產(chǎn)業(yè)組織怎么應(yīng)付訓(xùn)練和教育。黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 5 頁(yè)Education and training for CAD in the auto industryDavid A. FieldGeneral Motors Research, Development and Planning Center, Mail Code: 480-106-359, 30500 Mount Road, Warren, MI 48090-9055, USAAbstract：CAD-systems envisioned and remarkably well specified in the 1950s have powered themselves into the central role they enjoy in today’s automotive industry through continuous improvements and technological breakthroughs. This paper emphasizes the parallel and continuing evolution in the training and educational needs of users of CAD-systems. In the context of early historical developments of CAD at General Motors, this paper categorizes CAD-users in the automobile industry and presents their current and future needs. The variance in their educational and training needs poses an ongoing challenge for educational and industrial institutions to meet.Keywords: CAD education; CAD trainingIntroductionIn this paper CAD-models mean mathematically precise geometrical descriptions of physical objects. The descrip-tions include numerical data as well as algorithms to prescribe the geometry of the objects. CAD-systems then provide the means to create, manipulate and communicate these geometric descriptions. In order to focus on CAD with respect to the education, training and needs of CAD-users in the automotive industry, first consider a very brief history of CAD at General Motors. Similar accounts can be chronicled at other manufacturing enterprises at other manufacturing enterprises.According to an internal document written at General Motors during the late 1950s, engineers outlined, with detailed specifications, an ambitious project that prototyped modern CAD-systems. The document credits an ongoing development from the late 1940s, servo-mechanisms and digital computers, for the feasibility and motivation of a CAD-system. Although the document immediately expressed the benefits of cost savings through control 黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 6 頁(yè)of design and manufacture, reduced manpower, faster turn-around,and improved communication among engineers and draftsmen (now called designers), the document did not anticipate the magnitude of benefits reaped by the eventual proliferation of CAD in the design and manufacturing processes. Engineers, especially mechanical engineers who would be relieved from much of their experimental work, would make sophisticated uses of CAD systems in situations where workers, such as draftsmen, lacked the knowledge, skills and training. For instance, CAD-systems enabled mechanical engineers to use finite element analysis (FEA) on an unprecedented large scale.The details of this proposed CAD-system essentially described CAD-systems in use during the 1990s. Details reflected a curious blend of pushing available technology with requirements yet unattainable at that time, provided a sound business case, described improved work flow and itemized some detailed mathematics for CAD. Incredibly, some technologies did not meet specifications until nearly thirty years later! The initial paragraph of this historical document clearly laid the foundation of a CAD-system dependent on mathematics. And, as engineers in a manufacturing industry, the authors also stressed the development of technical tools, product design and, especially manufacturing tools and machines, based on what is now called CAD-technology. Emphasis on styling and numerically controlled machines dominated discus- sions. Yet common themes, saving time, creating geometry, maintenance of data, accuracy and control, provided an excellent initial list for assessing the quality of CAD- systems.Continuous improvements and technological break-throughs have powered CAD into the central role it enjoys in today’s automotive industry. The most obvious examples of continuous improvement occurred in the speed, capacity and through put of computers. Computational power enabled analyses of more significant engineering problems and absorbed the increasing computationally intensive computer graphics environments. During the mid-1980s computer graphics hardware and software finally enabled real time visualizations that stylists envisioned in the 1950s. Advances in software came in all sorts of flavors. Mathematics played a crucial role by providing new mathematical constructs and algorithms. Mathematics that had been known for centuries underwent new development and 黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 7 頁(yè)fed fruitful research. Software received significant improvements in speed, robustness, accuracy and adapta- bility from underlying mathematics. Subject matter experts, in hardware and software, can point to breakthroughs that commercial CAD-systems, sometimes with tremendous inertia or reluctance, eventually absorbed. On the other hand, standards for prosaic but equally important tasks such as databases, mathematical representations of surfaces and solids, and robust computational algorithms have made tremendous improvements in processing geometric in for- mation upon which mathematical models and manufactur- ing processes depend.Since work directly related to product design and manufacturing has very high visual content, CAD-systems have become central to processes from the earliest design phase to final production. Yet, to accomplish their tasks, the vast majority of current engineers need not have any knowledge of the sophisticated mathematics and computer science upon which CAD-models and CAD-systems depend. Ranging from design specifications, to product analyses, to production tooling, etc. CAD-systems integrate these tasks by providing links to appropriate geometric data, visualizations, and interfaces with a myriad of software packages. CAD enables creation and control of product information. It allows virtually instant visual and, most important, accurate communication for design, develop- ment, analysis and manufacturing.This paper will partition the world of CAD-users into groups that require various levels of CAD-expertise. The following sections address the CAD-related needs of these groups in order of their increasing need for knowing the mathematics and computer science of CAD. The paper concludes with a call for all CAD-users to obtain a higher developed sense of spatial reasoning.CAD for the majorityThe United States has more than one million practicing engineers. Even though computers have impacted all their jobs,their useof CAD varies from notat all tobeing highly dependent on CAD. Manufacturing industries have been exceptionally heavy users of CAD from the very inception of CAD, initially called Design Augmented by Computers at 黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 8 頁(yè)General Motors to emphasize design by humans and computation by computers. Emphasis on creating designs would be relieved from much of their experimental work, would make sophisticated uses of CAD systems in situations where workers, such as draftsmen, lacked the knowledge, skills and training. For instance, CAD-systems enabled mechanical engineers to use finite element analysis (FEA) on an unprecedented large scale.Cars and trucks disassemble into thousands of parts. Even into the mid-1980s draftsmen recorded on blueprints geometries of the separt sand the tooling to manufacture and assemble the parts into automotive vehicles. Once computer graphics became interactive and reliable, throngs of drafts- men and the tons of paper they generated became designers and electronic records, respectively. Unlike the aerospace industry where designers have historically been engineers as well, these draftsmen had little if any engineering education.In the automobile industry designers generally use CAD- systems to create and store geometric data. These tasks contrast with the work of engineers who typically use CAD to retrieve and manipulate geometric data for input into engineering analyses software. At the extremes engineers manipulate nodes in finite element meshes generated from models created by a designer who, in addition to producing the basic data for automatic mesh generation, creates special technical views having photographic realism. This dicho- tomy separating automotive engineers and designers who use CAD in different ways is slowly changing. Putting in abeyance the problems that this dichotomy produces and reflecting on the current and historical roles of CAD will provide a perspective to deal with this dichotomy. Recommended changes in the education and training of engineers and of designers will emerge from this perspective.During the late 1960s and early 1970s when primitiv CAD systems left in-house research and developmen environments, small cohorts of draftsmen and engineer used CAD to create geometry. Engineers saw CAD as a tool to be further developed for downstream applications such as structural analyses, computer controlled machining etc Draftsmen still received specifications from engineers an used CAD as a tool for drafting. As with any implementation of a major new technology, the initial implementations of CAD required 黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（文獻(xiàn)翻譯） 第 9 頁(yè)training of small groups of draftsmen and engineers. Continual improvements in CAD, however, had major consequences. New releases of software and an increasing number of CAD-related applications software required commitments to continued training. The ensuing organizational structure for training enabled introductions to CAD not only for draftsmen, now called designers, and the engineers they interacted with but also for a very broad cross section of engineers; see training for CAD in Section 5. This broad new audience included product, manufacturing, release and powertrain engineers, just to name a few. Out of this ubiquitous contact with CAD, additional small cohorts of engineers, along with mainly mathematicians and computer scientists, contributed expertise that converged to make CAD happen. Their needs differed substantially from the vast new majority of CAD-users. Section 3 will address their new role and needs. Meanwhile, a much larger group of engineers in the design and development of products emerged with an urgency to use CAD-systems as enablers for commercial software packages that evolved from those small communities of computer scientists, engineers, mathematicians and scientists.This convergence fueled by CAD helps resolve the ichotomy mentioned earlier. By simplifying and removing edious work for designer sand engineers ,CAD makes clear that the resolution require sad ditional training and education beyond basic curricula. Already burdened curricula at educational institutions make new requirements difficult to implement.